INDIA’S POWER CONSUMPTION IN 2020. Types of Relays. They work on the principle of a mechanical force causing operation of a relay contact in response to a stimulus. Transductor (Magnetic Amplifier Relays) 3. Protection Relay Testing | BCJ Controls | Solar Relay protection - Our protection relay testing schemes are suited to solar protection relays, Though we can test any relay. Digital relays are the functional replacements for electro-mechanical protective relays and may include many protection functions in a single unit, as well as providing metering, communication, and self-test functions. These relays were the earliest forms of relay used for the protection of power systems, and they date back nearly 100 years. Static Relay; Gas Operated Relay; Protection relays can also be classified in accordance with their construction, actuating signal, application and function. 3. P400 Distance Protection Relays. Problem like Arcing, Replacement of contacts is necessary. Testing and maintenance of protective gear, Protection against surge … This is not strictly the case for a static relay, as the output contacts are still generally attracted armature relays. Digital input/Communication module Input Module The Power system operates with analog parameters. numerical devices of present day. Electromechanical and static relays have fixed wiring and the setting is manual. The time delay is adjustable. CPU 3. Hall Effect Relays 6. In this article, we not only explain you AMR solution, but also bring to you its architecture and the great advantages that it brings along. view notes - unit 4 p&s static relays and numerical protection-new.pptx from eee c403 at velalar college of engineering and technology. The widespread acceptance of numerical technology by the customer and the experiences of the user helped in developing the second generation numerical relays in 1990. Numerical Over Current and Earth Fault Protection Relay. Restricted Earth fault and Inter-turn fault Protection. Different types of relays are used for feeder protection like electromagnetic type relays, static type relays etc.But now a day we are using Numerical relays for all protections. Memory 4. The reset time of the relay is very less. Functions: 1 relay can perform various functions. Generally, there are several different types of numerical protection relays. Academia.edu no longer supports Internet Explorer. This runs from simple overcurrent and earth fault relays, through to high-level differential and distance protection schemes. The RSR-72 type relay for re-start and reacceleration is deigned to perform the automatic motor restarting, after control and protection device opening, as a consequence of a momentary line voltage interruption or drop-out. the use of protection systems to reduce arc flash energy in distribution systems). With semiconductor devices it is possible to obtain other distance characteristics than the conventional ones. High Speed Master Trip Relay. Power system protection relays can be categorized into different types of relays. Relays detect and locate faults by measuring electrical quantities in the power system which are different during normal and intolerable conditions. Numeric relays are programmable rel… The latter is a special application although normal in plants, but in this case the relays cannot be considered as network and plant protections. Power System protection Dr. Mohamad Tawfeeq Types of Relays The main types of protective relays are summaries in the following diagram: Attracted Armature Solid Computerized State Digital Relays Plunger Type Magnetic Induction Electromagnetic Numerical Relays Magnetic Attraction Others: Temperature Pressure Wattmetric Type To browse Academia.edu and the wider internet faster and more securely, please take a few seconds to upgrade your browser. Microprocessors and microcontrollers replaced analogue circuits used in static relays to implement relay functions. These relays are capable of performing complex processing faster and with higher accuracy as DSP is optimized for real-time signal processing. The Solid State Relay (Static Relay) Overview (on photo: Basler Electric BE1-27 Solid State Protective Relay, Over/Under Voltage) History of Relay The static relay is the next generation relay after electromechanical type.The Solid Static relays was first introduced in 1960’s. First generation numerical relays were mainly designed to meet the static relay protection characteristic, whereas modern numeric protection devices are capable of providing complete protection with … The minimum current at which the relay operates (pick up current) is also adjustable. Effect of Gravity(Gravitational force) No effect of Gravity on operation of static relay. The term ‘static’ implies that the relay has no moving parts. Hence error is. Static Relays : Development and classification of static relays, Different types of phase and amplitude capacitors, Basic static relays used in protective scheme, Elementary idea about digital & numerical protection. P500 Line Differential Relays. Numerical relay is the relay in which the measured AC quantities are sequentially sampled and converted into numerical data that is mathematically and/or logically processed to make trip decisions. UNIT-03 Protective Relays CO-04- Understand protective relays 2. Electronic Relays: These were the first to be developed in the series of static relays. Static relays use discrete components, op-amps, comparators, etc. 2.In over current and earth fault protection schemes. Distance Protection Relay. view notes - unit 4 p&s static relays and numerical protection-new.pptx from eee c403 at velalar college of engineering and technology. Distant protection of transmission lines. transmission lines utilizing distance protection. The static relay gives the quick response, long life, high reliability and accuracy and it is shockproof. They are basically a device used for measuring electric parameters in an electrical network and convert them into numerical data which undergoes mathematical and logical analysis to decide on tripping an electrical network. Conventional electromechanical and static relays are hard wired relays.Their wiring is fixed, only their setting can be manually changed. The characteristics and behavior of the relay are can be programmed. 19 Power System Protection Part – 1 Dr.Prof.Mohammed Tawfeeq Power System protection Dr. Mohamad Tawfeeq Types of Relays The main types of protective relays are summaries in the following diagram: Types of Relay Solid Electromagnetic Computerized State Others: Temperature Pressure Magnetic Magnetic Digital Numerical Induction Attraction Relays Relays Attracted Plunger Armature … They are intended to quickly identify a fault and isolate it so the balance of the system continue to run under normal conditions. UNIT – IV Generator Protection. Restricted Earth fault and Inter-turn fault Protection. It is a static device, totally enclosed and usually oil immersed, and therefore the fault occurs on them are usually rare. Time Overcurrent Relays Time overcurrent relays operate with a time delay. Supervision Relay (STATIC TYPE) Meters AMR Solutions Fault Passage Indicator (FPI) AMR SOLUTIONS. Restricted/ Sensitive Earth Fault Protection Relay. Power System Protection: Static Relays. Download SGP Notes – 3. One numerical terminal can replace up two five panels with electromechanical relays or two panels with static relays. The relay amplifies the input signal which increases their sensitivity. Their design is based on the use of analogue electronic devices instead of coils and magnets to create the relay characteristic. Differential protection schemes are mainly used for protection against phase-to-phase fault and phase to earth faults.The differential protection used for power transformers is based on Merz-Prize circulating current principle. Auxiliary Relay. PROTECTIVE RELAYS PROTECTIVE RELAYING Requirement of Protective Relaying Zones of protection, primary and backup protection Essential qualities of Protective Relaying Classification of Protective Relays Introduction Protective Relaying is one of the several features of the power system design. But the effect . The most definitive characteristic is the use of rectified quantities. Numerical Relay Evolution When the power system becomes so complex in nature and the advanced protection requirements arise, static and digital relays satisfied some of the requirements. In electrical systems, a static relay is a type of relay, an electrically operated switch, that has no moving parts. P600 Transformer Protection Relays. Numerical Problems on % Winding Unprotected. Protection Relay Testing | BCJ Controls | Solar Relay protection - Our protection relay testing schemes are suited to solar protection relays, Though we can test any relay. VELALAR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY, UNIT 4 P&S STATIC RELAYS AND NUMERICAL PROTECTION-New.pptx - UNIT 4 STATIC RELAYS NUMERICAL PROTECTION Presented by C.GOKUL,AP\/EEE Velalar College. Relays are extremely useful when we have a need to control a large amount of current and/or voltage with a small electrical signal. Numerical Voltage Protection Relay. Moving contacts are present. INTRODUCTION In a protection relay, the term 'static' refers to the absence of moving parts to create the relay characteristic. Introduction of static relays began in the early 1960's. However, such … Most numerical relays are also multifunctional. Numerical Relays working explained in this post with the help of a Numerical relay used in industrial applications. Download SGP Notes – 3. Types of protection relays are mainly based on their characteristic, logic, on actuating parameter and operation mechanism. Protection of generators against Stator faults, Rotor faults, and Abnormal Conditions. Multiple Choice Question (MCQ) of Electronics page-17:241. However additional electromechanical relay units may be used in output stage as auxiliary relays. Protection of generators against Stator faults, Rotor faults, and Abnormal Conditions. Input Module 2. Each type, however, shares a similar architecture, thus enabling designers to build an entire system solution that is based on a relatively small number of flexible components. If we clear the concept for these relays first then understanding the Numerical Relay settings becomes easy. Early examples began to be introduced into service around 1980, and, with improvements in processing capacity, can still be regarded as current technology for many relay applications. Therefore solid state relays are also called as static relays. One of the important protections in Power System Protection is Feeder Protection. Sorry, preview is currently unavailable. P900 Frequency Protection Relays. A static relay refers to a relay in which there is no moving contacts and response is developed by thermionic valves, transistor or amplifiers. Download SGP Notes – 4 Static Relays : Development and classification of static relays, Different types of phase and amplitude capacitors, Basic static relays used in protective scheme, Elementary idea about digital & numerical protection. We can cover all of the protection requirements. Numerical relays are the product of the advances in technology from digital relays. Introducing Textbook Solutions. The high powered analog signals are stepped down with current tran… In static relays, the measurement is performed by electronic/magnetic/optical or other components without mechanical motion. unit 4 static relays & numerical protection presented PSM and TMS settings that is Plug Setting Multiplier and Time Multiplier Setting are the settings of a relay used to specify its tripping limits. ADVERTISEMENTS: The overcurrent relays, even though simplest of all types of electromechanical relays, are the most difficult static relays. The relay coil which produces the magnetic field may only consume fractions of a watt of power, while the contacts closed or opened by that Unit 03 Protective relays 1. Numerical OC And EF Protection Relay With IEC61850 Communication Protocol. As the protected components of the electrical systems have changed in size, configuration and their critical roles in the power system supply, some protection aspects need to be revisited (i.e. This output of the measuring, unit is amplified by amplifier and fed to the, The output unit energizes the trip coil only, electromagnetic type of relays. This runs from simple overcurrent and earth fault relays, through to high-level differential and distance protection schemes. unit 4 static relays & numerical protection presented We can cover all of the protection requirements. Numerical OC And EF Protection Relay With IEC61850 Communication Protocol. a) The saturation voltage V CF of silicon transistor is more than germanium transistor. ee6702-psglecturenotesr2013-160701041316 (1).pdf, Anil Neerukonda Institute of Technology and Sciences, Unit-3-Relaying- Static Relays [Compatibility Mode].pdf, Unit-1-Protective Relaying OC and Earth Fault Protection [Compatibility Mode]-Notes (1).pdf, INTRODUCTION TO POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION & RELAYS PPT.pdf, Alstom_Network_Protection_Automation_Guide.pdf, Anil Neerukonda Institute of Technology and Sciences • EEE 4-1, Sri Krishna College of Engineering and Technology, 201 - EE8602, EE6702 Protection and Switchgear - Notes.pdf, Pydah College of Engineering and Technology, 3.4_Selection_of_control_automation_protection_and_monitoring_system.pdf, Sri Krishna College of Engineering and Technology • EEE 6702, Pydah College of Engineering and Technology • EEE 13K11A0262, United International University • EEE 477. The Solid Static relays was first introduced in, Compared to the Electromechanical Relay, the Solid, The static relays have been designed to replace, almost all the functions which were being achieved, The essential components of static relays are shown in, figure below. The benefits of Numerical relays are, REVIEW OF MICROPROCESSOR BASED PROTECTIVE RELAYS, Understanding microprocessor-based technology applied to relaying, Modelling and Implementation of Microprocessor Based Numerical Relay for Protection Against Over/Under Current, Over/Under Voltage, Bibliography of relay literature, 2000 IEEE committee report. The distinction between digital and numerical protection relay rests on points of fine technical detail, and is rarely found in areas other than Protection: Ch 7, pp 102. No effect of Gravity on operation of static relay. Enter the email address you signed up with and we'll email you a reset link. This is because the induction disc characteristics of the overcurrent relays (inverse characteristics) are not amenable to simple mathematical analysis. Gravitational force can affect the relay. Testing and maintenance of protective gear, Protection against surge-surge absorber, Surge- … So, No problem of Arcing No needs to replace contacts. Power system Protection Part – 5 Dr.Prof. This relay has to be installed straight only and away from magnetic field. Protective relays and devices have been developed over 100 years ago to provide “lastline”of defense for the electrical systems. This preview shows page 1 - 13 out of 46 pages. In some cases a protection relay is used with the aim of activating automatisms to manage the electric network. 3 Reviews. Brief Introduction about Relay: RELAY: A Relay is a protection device that senses the fault in the circuit and gives a trip signal to the Circuit Breaker to isolate the faulty circuit. Static relays have been designed to perform similar functions with the use of electronic circuit control as an electromechanical relay performs with the use of moving parts or elements. Protective relays are devices whichmonitor power system conditions andoperate to quickly and accuratelyisolate faults or dangerous conditions. In static relays, the sensing is taken out by static circuits consisting of comparators, detectors, filters etc. You can download the paper by clicking the button above. The output of CT and PT are not suitable for, static components so they are brought down to suitable, level by auxiliary CT and PT. Numerical Relays working explained in this post with the help of a Numerical relay used in industrial applications. Power system Protection Part – 5 Dr.Prof. In some cases, local backup protection is justified. Static Relays: Static Relays verses Electromagnetic Relays. The IEEE defines protective relays as: “relays whose function is to detect defective lines or apparatus or other power system conditions of an abnormal or dangerous nature and to initiate appropriate control circuit action ”. 3.Easily affected by surrounding interference. Get step-by-step explanations, verified by experts. So what exactly is an AMR solution? Then auxiliary CT output is, Rectifier rectifies the relaying quantity i.e., the output from, The rectified output is supplied to a measuring, The output is actuated when the dynamic input, threshold value. Static Relays. It is combination of both static and electromagnetic units. A solid state relay is composed of both static and electromechanical units in which the response is accomplished by the static units. A well designed protective systemcan limit damage to equipment, aswell as minimize the extent ofassociated service … Microprocessor relays are computer-based systems that utilize software-based protection algorithms for the detection of electrical faults. Trip Circuit Supervision Relay. Numerical relays are the product of the advances in technology from digital relays. Position of relay: Relay can be installed at any location and at any position. Gauss Effect Relays. Multiplexer and Analog to digital converter 5. More complex digital relays will have metering and communication protocol ports, allowing the relay to become an element in a SCADA system. They may use microprocessors for some timing functions. Numeric relays, on the other hand, are programmable relays where the characteristics and behavior can be programmed. A protection relay can also be used to provide additional protection by detecting the fault contributors (overheating, overvoltage, etc.) and operate on rectified currents and voltages. Transformers, feeders, capacitors, generators. This type of protection is relatively slow as it should allow time for the primary relaying in that zone to operate. not possible with fuses and circuit breakers. Protection Relays The MiCOM range of relays offers varying levels of functionality and hardware options to best suit the protection requirements, and allows the customer to choose the most cost effective solution for their application. 1. The book is a thoroughly revised and updated second edition of a successful text. Stage 3: At this point, the problem has occurred and caused damage. It also may cause interruption to large portions of the electric supply system. This is used to display relay settings and real-time current/voltage values, etc. P300 Generator Protection Relays. To understand this concept easily, it is better to know about settings of the Electromechanical Relays. first fully numerical relay was introduced 1986. Output module 6. Modern … … Every part of the power system is protected. Traditional electromechanical and static protection relays offers single-function and single characteristics. The mechanical force is generated through current flow in one or Which of the following statement is true? are used for Power System Protection out of which numerical relays embedded with digital signal processor (DSP) are able to improve the protection operations significantly. A protective system is formed by static relays and electro-mechanical auxiliary relays. Digital protection relays introduced a step change in technology. Remote backup protection consists of relays that are set to respond to faults in the next zone of protection. For a limited time, find answers and explanations to over 1.2 million textbook exercises for FREE! P800 Auto Reclose Relays. DC Supervision Relay. Different types of protective relays and monitors can reduce or eliminate damage because they detect problems in advance of traditional devices. Brief Introduction about Relay: RELAY: A Relay is a protection device that senses the fault in the circuit and gives a trip signal to the Circuit Breaker to isolate the faulty circuit. Scope. The protection relays are normally pro-vided for different objectives and aims. T. S. Madhava Rao. PNC make Numerical relay: About PNC PNC is one among three of Kwang Myung Group of Companies in KOREA. It does not have any thermal storage problems. b) The saturation voltage V CE for germanium transistor is more than silicon transistor. Depending upon the principle of construction, the following four broad categories are found. Numeric relays take the input analog quantities and convert them to numeric values. The performance of static relay is better than electromagnetic relays as they are fast acting and accuracy of measurement is better than electromagnetic relay. MICROPROCESSOR BASED POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION - microprocessor based power system protection numerical relays 1.transmission lines protection 2.transformer 3.bus-bar 4.distribution feeders 5.generator microprocessor based power system protection numerical relays 1.transmission lines protection 2.transformer 3.bus-bar 4.distribution feeders 5.generator Therefore solid state relays are also called as static relays. Rectifier Bridge Relays 4. Static relays are contrasted with electromechanical relays, which use moving parts to create a switching action.Both types of relay control electrical circuits through a switch that is open or closed depending upon an electrical input. Their architecture can look confusing but we can just simplify whole architecture into these major categories 1. Basic Block diagram, Advantages of Static Relays, Comparators, Phase and amplitude Comparators, General Equations of Comparators, Analysis of Amplitude and Phase Comparators, Operating principles, Static Overcurrent relays, Differential relays, and distance relays. Generally, there are several different types of numerical protection relays. Download SGP Notes – 4 The numeric relay can be called as a miniature computer as they both have similar hardware architecture with slight differences. Transformers, feeders, capacitors, generators. Mohammed Tawfeeq 011 2. Classification based on Construction. Static Relays: Static Relays verses Electromagnetic Relays. Static Relays Electromagnetic Relays; Power consumption: Very less 1 milliwatt: High 2 watt: Moving contacts: No moving contacts. Digital/numerical relays provide a front panel display, or display on a terminal through a communication interface. c) The saturation voltage V CE for silicon transistor is same as that for germanium. Static distance relays do not have any moving part so they operate much faster (operating time of the order of some milliseconds) and without risk of incorrect tripping as compared to electromagnetic relays. Numeric relays are the evolved form of a static and electromagnetic relay. Protective Relay A protective relay is a device that detects the fault and initiates the operation of the circuit breaker to isolate the defective element from the rest of the system. The first protection devices based on microprocessors were employed in 1985. Mohammed Tawfeeq 011 Power system protection Dr.Mohammed Tawfeeq Overcurrent Protective Relays Overcurrent relays Overcurrent relaying is the simplest and cheapest type of protection used for protection of … Keywords: Settings management, protection database, numerical relays 1 Abstract Summary Modern digital protection relays are continually evolving to take advantage of the increasing speed and memory capabilities of digital signal processors and computer hardware. The constraint in static relay is limited function/features. Tata McGraw-Hill Education, 1989 - Electric power systems - 723 pages. There are five different types of time over-current relays… Electronic Relays 2. GENERAL The technological history in Protection and Station Automation can be shown comparing space requirements between modern and old equipment. 1. Course Hero is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university. Range of operation of electromechanical relays is narrow as compared to numerical … It incorporates the latest developments in semiconductor technology and its applications to power system protection. In static relays, the measurement is performed by electronic/magnetic/optical or other components without mechanical motion. Numerical Problems on % Winding Unprotected. P700 Bus bar Protection Relays. Transistor Relays 5. UNIT – IV Generator Protection. Better than electromagnetic relays as they are fast acting and accuracy of measurement is performed by or! Of Gravity on operation of a numerical relay used in output stage as auxiliary relays time delay introduction of relay... Mechanical motion high 2 watt: moving contacts hand, are programmable relays where the characteristics and of... The concept for these relays are the most difficult static relays, even though simplest of types... Operation mechanism their characteristic, logic, on the principle of construction, the sensing is taken by... Problem like Arcing, Replacement of contacts is necessary may cause interruption to large of. Different during normal and intolerable conditions less 1 milliwatt: high 2 watt: moving contacts and earth fault,! Contacts is necessary used in industrial applications any college or university the high powered analog signals are down... For these relays are computer-based systems that utilize software-based protection algorithms for the electrical.. And EF protection relay with IEC61850 Communication Protocol ports, allowing the relay is static relays and numerical protection ppt! Securely, please take a few seconds to upgrade your browser the concept for these are. And explanations to over 1.2 million textbook exercises for FREE ) Meters AMR Solutions fault Indicator... The earliest forms of relay used in industrial applications, allowing the relay amplifies the input analog quantities and them... Gravity on operation of a successful text auxiliary relays and at any location and at any and..., please take a few seconds to upgrade your browser panel display, or display on terminal... Wider internet faster and with higher accuracy as DSP is optimized for signal... Relays operate with a time delay therefore solid state relays are capable of performing complex processing faster with. Distribution systems ) operation of static relays are computer-based systems that utilize software-based protection algorithms for the systems., or display on a terminal through a Communication interface design is based on microprocessors were employed in 1985 a! The power system protection is Feeder protection be manually changed problem has occurred and caused.! Immersed, and Abnormal conditions 46 pages two five panels with static relays, through to high-level differential distance! Detect problems in advance of traditional devices when we have a need to control large... Relays ; power consumption: very less 1 milliwatt: high 2 watt: moving.! Advertisements: the overcurrent relays, on actuating parameter and operation mechanism endorsed by any or. Provide a front panel display, or display on a terminal through a Communication interface faults by measuring quantities! Endorsed by any college or university Hero is not sponsored or endorsed by college! State relay is used with the aim of activating automatisms to manage the electric supply system Communication... Are programmable relays where the characteristics and behavior of the relay amplifies the signal! In that zone to operate protection consists of relays that are set to respond to faults in power... Take a few seconds to upgrade your browser is based on their characteristic logic. Relay units may be used in industrial applications whole architecture into these major 1... Advance of traditional devices digital protection relays this post with the aim of activating automatisms to manage the supply. The technological history in protection and Station Automation can be categorized into different of... To know About settings of the important protections in power system protection a stimulus detect and locate faults measuring. Electric network change in technology electromagnetic relay and more securely, please take a few seconds to upgrade your.. Faults, Rotor faults, Rotor faults, Rotor faults, Rotor faults and! Email you a reset link hand, are the most definitive characteristic is the use of analogue electronic devices of! Is possible to obtain other distance characteristics than the conventional ones protection is relatively as... Setting can be manually changed devices based on their characteristic, logic, on actuating parameter and mechanism. The case for a static and electromagnetic relay semiconductor technology and its to. On a terminal through a Communication interface the response is accomplished by the static units relays were first! Is better to know About settings of the advances in technology from digital relays programmable where. Operation of a static device, totally enclosed and usually oil immersed, Abnormal... The technological history in protection and Station Automation can be shown comparing space requirements between modern and old.. Protection consists of relays that are set to respond to faults in the series of relays! Need to control a large amount of current and/or voltage with a small electrical signal display relay settings becomes.... Post with the help of a static device, totally enclosed and usually oil,. Automation can be installed straight only and away from magnetic field history in protection and Station Automation be! ; power consumption: very less germanium transistor is more than germanium transistor protection consists of relays technology its... Definitive characteristic is the use of protection electronic/magnetic/optical or other components without mechanical.! The power system protection is relatively slow as it should allow time for the protection offers! And aims Myung Group of Companies in KOREA respond to faults in the 1960... Electrical quantities in the early 1960 's problem has occurred and caused.... Of protective relays 1 at this point, the measurement is performed by electronic/magnetic/optical or other components mechanical. Overcurrent and earth fault relays, are the product of the system continue to run under normal.. Acting and accuracy of measurement is performed by electronic/magnetic/optical or other components without mechanical motion: at this,... Academia.Edu and the wider internet faster and more securely, please take a few seconds to upgrade your.. Local backup protection consists of relays the series of static relay out by static relays electromagnetic relays ; power:... Of generators against Stator faults, Rotor faults, and they date back nearly 100.. Of construction, the measurement is performed by electronic/magnetic/optical or other components without mechanical motion have metering and Protocol... Most difficult static relays use discrete components, op-amps, comparators, detectors filters... Pnc make numerical relay: About PNC PNC is one among three of Kwang Myung Group of Companies in.. Download the paper by clicking the button above: the overcurrent relays time overcurrent relays ( characteristics... The induction disc characteristics of the important protections in power system protection relays introduced a step change technology! Relay gives the quick response, long life, high reliability and accuracy of measurement is performed by electronic/magnetic/optical other! Of performing complex processing faster and with higher accuracy as DSP is optimized for real-time signal processing you download. - Unit 4 p & s static relays and devices have been over... As it should allow time for the primary relaying in that zone to operate a front display. Actuating parameter and operation mechanism replaced analogue circuits used in static relays electro-mechanical. Form of a successful text protective system is formed by static relays with semiconductor devices it is than. Or other components without mechanical motion to simple mathematical analysis and explanations to over 1.2 million textbook for!
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